Sustainable Development Goal 15
"Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss"
Linkage with other SDGs
Protecting, restoring, and promoting sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems is essential for biodiversity conservation, climate stability, food security, and human livelihoods. SDG 15 focuses on forests, wetlands, mountains, and drylands, which are integral to human well-being and planetary health.
The following direct and indirect interlinkages exist between SDG 15 and all other SDGs:
SDG 1 - No Poverty: Healthy ecosystems provide resources for food, medicine, and livelihoods, particularly for rural and indigenous communities. Land degradation often deepens poverty by disrupting these vital resources. Example: Reforestation efforts in Rwanda have restored land for agricultural use, boosting incomes in rural areas.
SDG 2 - Zero Hunger: Terrestrial ecosystems support agriculture through fertile soils, pollination, and water regulation. Deforestation and land degradation reduce crop yields and threaten food security. Example: Agroforestry programs in Kenya integrate trees into farming systems, increasing productivity while conserving biodiversity.
SDG 3 - Good Health and Well-being: Biodiversity contributes to medicine development and ecosystem services that support health. Conversely, deforestation and habitat loss increase exposure to vector-borne diseases such as malaria. Example: In the Amazon rainforest, traditional medicinal plants derived from biodiversity are central to local healthcare systems.
SDG 4 - Quality Education: Education on environmental conservation and sustainable land management fosters awareness and empowers future generations to protect terrestrial ecosystems. Example: Environmental education initiatives in Tanzania teach children the importance of preserving forests and wildlife.
SDG 5 - Gender Equality: Women, particularly in rural areas, depend on land for agriculture, fuelwood, and water. Empowering women with land rights and conservation roles reduces inequality and strengthens ecosystem protection. Example: Women-led reforestation projects in Ethiopia have improved livelihoods and restored degraded land.
SDG 6 - Clean Water and Sanitation: Forests and wetlands regulate water cycles, ensuring clean water availability and preventing soil erosion. Land degradation disrupts these functions, threatening water supplies. Example: Watershed conservation in Nepal has improved water quality for downstream communities.
SDG 7 - Affordable and Clean Energy: Forests and biomass provide renewable energy sources, such as firewood and biofuels, for millions of people. Protecting forests ensures sustainable energy access while minimising environmental impacts. Example: Community-based forest management in Uganda has promoted sustainable firewood collection, reducing deforestation.
SDG 8 - Decent Work and Economic Growth: Sustainable forestry, ecotourism, and agriculture create jobs and drive economic growth. Land degradation reduces opportunities for these industries. Example: Ecotourism initiatives in Costa Rica have provided employment while conserving forests and biodiversity.
SDG 9 - Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure: Innovation in land management technologies, such as precision agriculture, minimises environmental impacts while enhancing productivity. Infrastructure development must balance economic growth with ecosystem conservation. Example: Satellite monitoring systems in Brazil track deforestation and guide sustainable land use planning.
SDG 10 - Reduced Inequalities: Marginalised communities, such as indigenous peoples, are often excluded from land ownership and resource management. Ensuring equitable access to land promotes social and economic equality. Example: Land titling programs in Bolivia have empowered indigenous groups and reduced conflicts over land.
SDG 11 - Sustainable Cities and Communities: Urban green spaces and reforestation projects near cities reduce pollution, enhance resilience to climate disasters, and improve urban liveability. Example: Urban reforestation in Mexico City has reduced air pollution and provided recreational spaces for residents.
SDG 12 - Responsible Consumption and Production: Sustainable land management reduces waste and preserves resources for future generations. Responsible sourcing of materials, such as timber, protects ecosystems. Example: Certification programs like FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) promote responsible timber production globally.
SDG 13 - Climate Action: Forests and terrestrial ecosystems are crucial for carbon sequestration, mitigating climate change. Deforestation exacerbates climate risks, while reforestation and conservation support climate adaptation. Example: India’s afforestation programs under the Green India Mission have enhanced carbon storage and reduced flood risks.
SDG 14 - Life Below Water: Terrestrial ecosystems influence marine environments by regulating water flows and reducing nutrient runoff. Poor land management contributes to ocean pollution, harming marine biodiversity. Example: Sustainable agricultural practices in the Mississippi River Basin have reduced nutrient runoff, improving water quality in the Gulf of Mexico.
SDG 16 - Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions: Inequitable land distribution and resource conflicts undermine social stability. Transparent governance in land management reduces disputes and fosters trust. Example: Post-conflict land restoration programs in Colombia have strengthened community resilience and reduced tensions.
SDG 17 - Partnerships for the Goals: Global partnerships are essential for addressing transboundary issues such as deforestation, wildlife trafficking, and land degradation. Collaborative efforts drive funding, innovation, and policy implementation. Example: The REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) initiative has united governments and NGOs in combating deforestation.
Consquence of failing to reach targets
Failure to protect and restore terrestrial ecosystems results in widespread consequences:
- Poverty (SDG 1) deepens as communities lose access to land-based resources.
- Hunger (SDG 2) worsens as agricultural productivity declines due to soil degradation.
- Climate action (SDG 13) weakens as deforestation reduces carbon storage capacity.
- Biodiversity loss (SDGs 14 and 15) accelerates, destabilizing ecosystems and threatening human survival.
Protecting life on land is essential for achieving global sustainability. Healthy ecosystems sustain livelihoods, food systems, and biodiversity, ensuring a stable and resilient planet.
SDG 15: Targets, Indicators, Progress and Data
By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements.
15.1.1: Forest area as a proportion of total land area.
15.1.2: Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by protected areas, by ecosystem type.
The world’s forest area continues to decline, albeit at a slightly reduced pace compared to previous decades. The proportion of forest cover to total land area decreased from 31.9% in 2000 to 31.2% in 2020 with agricultural expansion accounting for nearly 90% of global deforestation. However, there has been notable progress towards sustainable forest management, marked by an increase in the proportion of forests under management plans and within protected areas. Moreover, certified forest area, which had shown steady long-term growth, has experienced a significant decline in the last two years, attributed to suspension of certificates due to the conflict in Europe.
By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally.
15.2.1: Progress towards sustainable forest management.
The world’s forest area continues to decline, from 31.9% in 2000 to 31.2% in 2020, representing a net loss of 100 million hectares. Agricultural expansion is the direct driver for almost 90% of global deforestation. However, globally, there has been progress in sustainable forest management with both certified forest area and the proportion of forests under management plans and within protected areas increasing. See also 15.1 and 15.4.
By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world.
15.3.1: Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area.
Between 2015 and 2019, the world lost at least 100 million hectares of healthy and productive land every year, affecting food and water security globally. Human activities, intensified by climate change, are the main drivers of land degradation, directly affecting 1.3 billion people. If land degradation continues at a similar rate, this would result in an additional 1.5 billion hectares of degraded land by 2030. To reach the target of ensuring a land degradation neutral world by 2030, avoiding new land degradation and restoring at least one billion degraded hectares of land are needed.
By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development.
15.4.1: Coverage by protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity.
15.4.2: Mountain Green Cover Index.
Global protected and conserved area coverage of marine, terrestrial, freshwater and mountain key biodiversity areas showed substantial improvements prior to 2000, this growth has stagnated over the last two decades. Particularly worrying is Central, Southern and Western Asia, Northern Africa, and Oceania, where average protected and conserved area coverage of key biodiversity areas is less than 30%. Progress has been more positive in Northern America and Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Australia and New Zealand, where over 40% of each key biodiversity area is now covered on average.
Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species.
15.5.1: Red List Index.
Species extinction risk continues to worsen, as evidenced by a 12% deterioration in the aggregate Red List Index between 2024 and 1993 (and 4% since 2015). The extinction risk of the world’s amphibian species was recently comprehensively re-assessed, revealing that for amphibians, climate change impacts, habitat conversion and alien invasive fungal disease are the most severe drivers of increasing extinction risk.
Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed.
15.6.1: Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits.
Countries continue to make progress in ratifying and implementing access and benefit-sharing instruments. By the end of 2023, 75 countries (up from 6 countries in 2016) and 93 countries (up from 12 countries in 2015) had reported on their legislative, administrative or policy measures under the Nagoya Protocol and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, respectively.
Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products.
15.7.1: Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked.
Estimates available for the first time show that, globally, intercepted illegal wildlife trade as a proportion of all wildlife trade (legal and illegal) increased from 2017 onwards, reaching its highest levels during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020-2021. It is estimated that wildlife seizures made up around 1.4 to 1.9% of global wildlife trade in 2020-2021.
No data available
By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species.
15.8.1: Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of invasive alien species.
Not reported on the UN SDG website.
By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts.
15.9.1: (a) Number of countries that have established national targets in accordance with or similar to Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 in their national biodiversity strategy and action plans and the progress reported towards these targets; and (b) integration of biodiversity into national accounting and reporting systems, defined as implementation of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting.
In 2023, 90 countries implemented the international statistical standard to measure the environment and ecosystems and their connection to the economy, an increase of 30% since 2017.
Mobilise and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems.
15.A.1: (a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilised from biodiversity-relevant economic instruments.
Not reported on the UN SDG website.
Mobilise significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation.
15.B.1: (a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilised from biodiversity-relevant economic instruments.
Not reported on the UN SDG website.
Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities.
15.C.1: Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked.
See 15.7